Holistic management / REF / 240 / 2014

Holistic management (from ὅλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, whole, entire, total) in agriculture is a systems thinking approach to managing resources that was originally developed by Allan Savory for reversing desertification.^[1] In 2010 the Africa Centre for Holistic Management in Zimbabwe, Operation Hope (a "proof of concept" project using holistic management) was named the winner of the 2010 Buckminster Fuller Challenge for "recognizing initiatives which  t ake a comprehensive, anticipatory, design approach to radically advance human well being and the health of our planet's ecosystems. "^[2][3][4]
The idea of holistic planned grazing began in the 1960s when Allan Savory, then a young wildlife biologist in his native Southern Rhodesia, set out to understand desertification. This can be seen in the context of the larger environmental movement. Heavily influenced by the work of André Voisin^[5][6] and the ineffectiveness of mainstream rangeland science of the time, Savory concluded that the spread of deserts, the loss of wildlife, and the human impoverishment that always resulted were related to the reduction of the natural herds of large grazers and even more, the change in behavior of those few remaining herds.^[1] Livestock could be substituted to provide important ecosystem services like nutrient cycling when mimicking^[7] those uniquely coevolved grasses and grazers.^[8][9][10] But managers had found that while rotational grazing systems can work for diverse management purposes, scientific experiments had demonstrated that they do not necessarily work for specific ecological purposes. An adaptive management plan was needed for the integration of the experiential with the experimental, as well as the social with the biophysical, to provide a more comprehensive framework for the management of rangeland systems.^[11] None of these sources of knowledge could be understood except in the context of the whole. Holistic management was developed to meet that need.

Development

In many regions, pastoralism and communal land use are blamed for environmental degradation caused by overgrazing. After years of research and experience, Savory came to understand this assertion was often wrong, and that sometimes removing animals actually made it worse.^[2] This concept is a variation of the trophic cascade, where humans are seen as the top level predator and the cascade follows from there.
"I have been particularly fascinated, for example, by the work of a remarkable man called Allan Savory, in Zimbabwe and other semi arid areas, who has argued for years against the prevailing expert view that is the simple numbers of cattle that drive overgrazing and cause fertile land to become desert. On the contrary, as he has since shown so graphically, the land needs the presence of feeding animals and their droppings for the cycle to be complete, so that soils and grassland areas stay productive. Such that, if you take grazers off the land and lock them away in vast feedlots, the land dies. "- His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales (Prince Charles) from a speech to the IUCN World Conservation Congress^[12]
Savory developed a flexible management system designed to improve grazing systems. Holistic planned grazing is one of a number of newer grazing management systems that more closely simulate the behavior of natural herds of wildlife and have been shown to improve riparian habitats and water quality over systems that often led to land degradation, and be an effective tool to improve range condition for both livestock and wildlife.^{[2][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]} Holistic planned grazing is similar to rotational grazing but differs in that it more explicitly recognizes and provides a framework for adapting to four basic ecosystem processes: the water cycle,^[17] the mineral cycle including the carbon cycle,^{[20][21][22][23]} energy flow, and community dynamics (the relationship between organisms in an ecosystem)^[24] as equal in importance to livestock production and social welfare. Holistic management has been likened to "a permaculture approach to rangeland management".^[25]

Uses

While originally developed as a tool for range land use^[26] and restoring desertified land,^[27] the holistic management system can be applied to other areas with multiple complex socioeconomic and environmental factors. One such example is Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which promotes sector integration in development and management of water resources to ensure that water is allocated between different users in a fair way, maximizing economic and social welfare without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. In essence, coordinated holistic water management takes into consideration all water users in nature and society.^[28] Another example is mine reclamation.^[29][30] A fourth use of Holistic management is in certain forms of no till crop production, intercropping, and permaculture.^{[31][25][32][33]} Holistic management has been acknowledged by The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS).^{[33][34][35][36]}

Framework

The holistic management decision-making framework uses six key steps to guide the management of resources:^[37][38]

1. Define in its entirety what you are managing. No area should be treated as a single-product system. By defining the whole, people are better able to manage. This includes identifying the available resources, including money, that the manager has at his disposal.
2. Define what you want now and for the future. Set the objectives, goals and actions needed to produce the quality of life sought, and what the life-nurturing environment must be like to sustain that quality of life far into the future.
3. Watch for the earliest indicators of ecosystem health. Identify the ecosystem services that have deep impacts for people in both urban and rural environments, and find a way to easily monitor them. One of the best examples of an early indicator of a poorly functioning environment is patches of bare ground. An indicator of a better functioning environment is newly sprouting diversity of plants and a return or increase of wildlife.
4. Don't limit the management tools you use. The eight tools for managing natural resources are money/labor, human creativity, grazing, animal impact, fire, rest, living organisms and science/technology. To be successful you need to use all these tools to the best of your ability.
5. Test your decisions with questions that are designed to help ensure all your decisions are socially, environmentally and financially sound for both the short and long term.
6. Monitor proactively, before your managed system becomes more imbalanced. This way the manager can take adaptive corrective action quickly, before the ecosystem services are lost. Always assume your plan is less than perfect and use a feedback loop that includes monitoring for the earliest signs of failure, adjusting and re-planning as needed. In other words use a "canary in a coal mine" approach.

Four principles

Holistic management planned grazing has four key principles that take advantage of the symbiotic relationship between large herds of grazing animals, their predators and the grasslands that support them:^[38][39]

1. Nature functions as a holistic community with a mutualistic relationship between people, animals and the land. If you remove or change the behavior of any keystone species like the large grazing herds, you have an unexpected and wide ranging negative impact on other areas of the environment.
2. It is absolutely crucial that any agricultural planning system must be flexible enough to adapt to nature’s complexity, since all environments are different and have constantly changing local conditions.
3. Animal husbandry using domestic species can be used as a substitute for lost keystone species. Thus when managed properly in a way that mimics nature, agriculture can heal the land and even benefit wildlife, while at the same time benefiting people.
4. Time and timing is the most important factor when planning land use. Not only is it crucial to understand how long to use the land for agriculture and how long to rest, it is equally important to understand exactly when and where the land is ready for that use and rest.

Criticism

One limitation of any land management system is that economically and politically powerful users can easily quantify and argue their needs. It is harder to define the economic value of ecosystem services and, therefore, the ecosystems and people most dependent on them for their subsistence become voiceless and often neglected users. In theory Holistic Management framework addresses this issue, but it is not always seen in the field.^[28] Another common criticism of holistic planned grazing is that while farmers and ranchers around the world believe that it works for them and they have even received awards,^{[2][40][41][42][43]} the majority of range scientists have not been able to experimentally confirm that intensive grazing systems similar to those at the center of holistic management show a benefit, and claim that managers' reports of success are anecdotal.^[44][45]

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Hill farming / REF / 239 / 2014

Hill farming is extensive farming in upland areas, primarily rearing sheep, although historically cattle were often reared extensively in upland areas. Fell farming is the farming of fells, a fell being an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing. It is a term commonly used in Northern England, especially in the Lake District and the Pennine Dales. Elsewhere, the terms hill farming or pastoral farming are more commonly used.
Cattle farming in the hills is usually restricted by a scarcity of winter fodder, and hill sheep, grazing at about two hectares per head, are often taken to lowland areas for fattening.
Modern hill farming is often heavily dependent on state subsidy, for example in the United Kingdom it receives support from the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy. Improved, sown pasture and drained moorland can be stocked more heavily, at approximately one sheep per 0.25 hectares.

Hill farming location and organization

Hill farming is a type of agricultural practice in the UK in upland regions. In England, hill farms are located mainly in the North and South-Western regions, as well as a few areas bordering Wales. The Scottish highlands are another home for many hill farms. Sheep farms and mixed sheep and cattle farms constitute approximately 55% of the agricultural land in Scotland. These areas have a harsh climate, short growing seasons, relatively poor quality of soil and long winters. Therefore, these areas are considered to be disadvantaged and the animals raised there are generally less productive and farmers will often send them down to the lowlands to be fattened up.
Upland areas are not traditionally favourable for agricultural practices. The majority of Hill farming land in England is classified as Less Favoured Area (LFA), and the LFA constitutes 17% of land farmed in England. The LFA is further divided into Severely Disadvantaged Areas (SDAs) and Disadvantaged Areas (DAs), which make up 67% and 33% of the LFA respectively. These areas are classified as such on account of poor climate, soils, and terrain which cause higher costs in production and transportation as well as lower yields and less productivity. The LFA is significant in England’s farming on a whole despite these disadvantages: 30% of beef cows and 44% of breeding sheep come from LFAs. Farming distinctively shapes the ecosystems of these zones, and the agriculture practices in the uplands define and shape the environment and landscape.
Upland areas are usually covered with both dry and wet dwarf shrub heath and, rough and either managed or unmanaged improved grasslands. The typical hill farm is made up of three distinct zones: the High fell, the Alotment, and the Inbye. The High fell includes peat moors and rocky areas which provide poor grazing at the top. The Alotment follows below, an enclosed area with rough grazing. The Inbye is the lowest area at the bottom, which is used as the regular grazing area as well as for growing hay.

Hill farming throughout history

Dartmoor National Park has over 10,000ha of prehistoric field systems, dating back to 1500BC. Archaeological evidence shows that these moors have been grazed for 3500 years. Because of the extent of historical farming in the UK uplands, hill farming has shaped the English uplands both environmentally and culturally.
The UK government has designated different areas in the upland as specifically valuable by certain terms of the environment, biodiversity, archaeology, cultural heritage and landscape, and seeks to protect these regions for such reasons. According to the UK government, these designated areas and their qualifications as such are:

• National parks
• "These protect and conserve the character of landscapes, facilities for access, wildlife habitats and historic features"
• Areas of outstanding natural beauty
• "These conserve and enhance naturally beautiful landscapes"
• Countryside character areas
• "Areas of cultural heritage which should be preserved"
• Natural England natural areas
• "Each area has a unique identity created by its mix of natural features and human activities and provides a broad context for local nature conservation work"
• Common land
• "Areas where people who do not own the land have rights to use it for farming or other purposes"
• National nature reserves
• "These protect and provide public access to important wildlife and geological sites"
• Special areas of conservation
• "These protect various wild animals, plants and habitats under the European Union’s Habitats Directive"
• Special protection areas
• "These protect rare and vulnerable birds and migratory species as well as geological and physiographical heritage"
• Upland experiment areas
• "Two upland areas where Natural England/Defra predecessor bodies piloted an integrated approach to rural development and nature conservation between 1999 and 2001"
• Ancient woodland
• "Land that has had continuous tree cover since at least 1600" 

Over the past century, Hill farming and the upland environment have undergone a number of changes. Since 1900 there has been:

• An approximately 500% increase in the number of sheep livestock
• A decrease in medium sized farms, due to increase in large farms businesses and the emergence of small-scale hobby farmers.
• Increased specialization in livestock and a movement away from tradition mixed farming methods.
• Fairly consistent labour employment on account of constant agricultural intensification offsetting reductions in labour output made possible by technological advancements.
• A high turnover rates in upland ecosystem habitat types. For example, although the percentage of land classified as dwarf shrub moor remained relatively stable between 1913 and 2000, only 55% of the dwarf moor shrub land in 1913 occupied the same area as it does in 2000.

Hill farming and uplands ecosystems

A large number of upland ecosystems have been shaped by humans for centuries, particularly by farming and agriculture. Because of this, many upland ecosystems have become dependent on hill farm land management. Hill farming practices play a significant role in supporting surrounding flora and fauna in the uplands. Through grazing, sheep and cattle maintain a variety of tall grasses and short vegetation. This in turn supports local wildlife, as the short vegetation provides breeding and nesting grounds for many species of waders, including Lapwing, Redshank, and Golden Plover. The taller grasses are an important part of the Curlew habitat, which is another species of wader. Cattle dung provides nutrition for many species of insects and carrion provides food for various species of scavenging birds.
During winter farmers will usually keep the animals indoors, supplementing the livestock's diet with hay or silage. The land used to grow winter feed that are not mowed are able to provide protection for a variety of birds including Skylarks, Partridge, and Corncrakes who build on their nests on the ground. Agricultural use, burning, and grazing by both livestock and wild life such as deer, helps to sustain the upland grasslands, moorland and bogs. If these ecosystems were not maintained they would be colonized by trees and scrub.
Sustainable careful maintenance is highly important in hill farming in order to protect the delicate relationship that farm manage has on the biodiversity of native plant and animal species.Upland ecosystems have seen a shift in the last century, associated with widespread habitat deterioration caused by human actions and exploitation. The decline in grazing animals accompanied with the milder winters experienced in recent years has caused an overgrowth in vegetation, putting the ecosystem, as well as various archaeological sites at risk. The Dartmoor Vision initiative is trying to return Dartmoor to its former predominantly cattle, sheep, and pony grazed landscape.

Government support and subsidies

Hill farm incomes in the UK have recently seen great decrease following drops in lamb and beef prices. Therefore subsidy support has become vital for Hill farm survival, and the policies have been changing in response to continuous uncertainty in the sector.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

Hill farming has been supported by both the British government and EU policies, one of the most influential EU scheme being The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The CAP provided production-based direct (headage) which gave incentive to stock beef cattle and sheep at high densities. This led to, in some circumstances, overgrazing which damages natural and semi-natural vegetation. Because of overgrazing and issues with the accumulation of surpluses, the CAP was reformed. The two most recent reforms to the CAP were Agenda 2000 in 1999 and the Mid Term Review of June 2003 and April 2004. These changes are phasing out support and protections linked to production, and are providing more support on environmental and rural developments.

Single Farm Payment

The Single Farm Payment replaced the older headage payments (CAP) in 2005. Analyses of the effects of economic incentives provided to hill farmers by decoupling and the introduction of the Single Farm Payment show that although these policies cause little change in average farm incomes the do encourage change in the way hill farms run. Specifically the policies promote the reduction of stocking densities, reduction of employment on additional farm labour, movement away from reliance of beef cattle, increased specialization, and to keep farming land to keep “good agricultural condition” rather than farm abandonment. The EU plans to phase out and progressively reduce the SFP, and the SFP is guaranteed until 2013.

Other policies

Other subsidy schemes from the British government are available to hill farmers, particularly the Uplands Entry Level Stewardship (Uplands ELS) and agri-environment schemes. The Uplands ELS replaced the prior Hill Farm Allowance in 2010. Before the HFA, hill farms we subsidized by the Hill Livestock Compensatory Allowances which were active as headage support to eligible beef cows and ewes. Because the DAs are more profitable than the SDAs, active since 2008 DAs became ineligible for funding from the Hill Farming Allowance (HFA).
In addition to the Upland ELS, hill farmers in England’s SDAs are supported by the Single Payment Scheme (SPS), which is the primary agricultural subsidy scheme under the EU. Subsidies from the SPS are not dependent on production, granting greater freedom to farmers to meet market demands. The SPS also claims to specifically support hill farmers who follow environmentally friendly farming practices.
In order to receive these subsidies, hill farmers must meet cross compliance rules and regulations, which mainly involves avoidance of overgrazing and unsuitable supplementary feeding on natural and semi-natural vegetation under GAEC (standard of good agricultural and environmental condition). These standards were implemented to protect significant habitats and to limit soil erosion and other negative effects of soil structure in the uplands.
Certain upland farmers and communities also have access to funding from the Rural Development Programme for England (RDPE) team at Defra. The reduction of farming subsidies that have taken place over the past few decades has created an uncertain future for farming in many parts of Europe.

Recent strain on hill farming

Without government subsidies, many hill farms would have a negative income. The high cost of land and machinery keeps many hill farmers from expanding. Hill farmers in some parts of England have reported a 75% decrease in income over the past decade.
Hill farmer income is subject to large fluctuation above the influence of the farmers.The harsh terrain and climate of hill farms are hard on the animals, causing them to be relatively very unproductive. Because of this, hill farming can have economic strains on the farmers who generally have low income. Wet weather, as often experienced in the uplands, create additional animal feed costs for farmers.
Many hill farmers earn around £12,600, with some earning as little as £8,000. This is much below the annual £19,820, a single working adult requires to live in a village in England. In 2008, a farmer would receive a profit of £1 for a single moorland lamb. The average LFA farm in England only earns about 66% of their total revenue from farming. 22% of this revenue comes from the Single Farm Payment, and 10% from specific agri-environment payments. The 2% balance originated from non-farm activities, which are usually associated with contracting or tourism and recreation.
Hill farmers in Peak District National Park (PDNP) constitute one of UK’s most deprived farming communities, with farms in the LFA making an average loss of £16,000 per farm, generating an average headline Farm Business Income of £10,800 (supplemented by various government subsidies), creating a net income average per farm of about £6000.
The Hill farming sector in South West England, like farming in the rest of the country, has experienced a decade of much change associated with economic pressures and uncertainties. On average, the financial position of hill farms in South West England, like the rest of country, is precarious. The average South West English Hill farm system in unable to match labour and capital invest in the business.
Many farmers rely on a Single Farm Payment as a source of income. These payments are expected to arrive in November or December, but sometimes farmers do not receive the money until June. Due to this farmers are often unable to pay their bills or fix their machinery. Some farmers have to cut back on the feed given to their animals, leading to a decrease in meat production and therefore lower profit. By 2012 the Single Payment Scheme (or SPS), will only take into consideration the area of the farm. This will decrease the income in moorland farmers to only 70% of what it was 20 years ago.
The income from calves and lambs has remained constant, while the costs of farm upkeep have risen sharply (including items such as feed, straw, fuel, or fertilizer). Because hill farming is becoming increasingly less profitable an increasing number of farmers have switched from the traditional hearty but less profitable animals which graze the moors to mainstream more profitable animals.
Opportunities for farmers to supplement their farm income by working in industries such as quarrying or mining are largely no longer available. The financial burden has taken a toll on many hill farmers, causing them to exhibit signs of mental health issues. Many hill farmers are forced to generate supplemental income outside their farms or to take out loans. Because of these economic factors, there is little incentive for younger generations to continue on with the hill farming.

Problems

As discussed in an article on the Carnegie UK Trust Rural Community Development Programme site:
"The Foot and Mouth outbreak in Cumbria in 2001 led to the culling of over a million sheep. It also showed that the hill (fell) farming communities were as vulnerable as the pastoral system they have created over many generations."

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pressure washer / REF / 238 / 2014

A pressure washer is a high-pressure mechanical sprayer used to remove loose paint, mold, grime, dust, mud, and dirt from surfaces and objects such as buildings, vehicles and concrete surfaces. The volume of a pressure washer is expressed in gallons or litres per minute, often designed into the pump and not variable. The pressure, expressed in pounds per square inch, pascals, or bar (deprecated but in common usage), is designed into the pump but can be varied by adjusting the unloader valve. Machines that produce pressures from 750 to 30,000 psi (5 to 200 MPa) or more are available.
The basic pressure washer consists of:

• A motor, such as electric, internal combustion, pneumatic or hydraulic, that drives a high-pressure water pump
• A high-pressure hose
• Trigger gun-style switch

Just as a garden hose nozzle is used to increase the velocity of water, a pressure washer creates high pressure and velocity. The pump cannot draw more water from the pipe to which the washer is connected than that source can provide: the water supply must be adequate for the machine connected to it, as water starvation leads to cavitation damage of the pump elements.
Different types of nozzle are available for different application. Some nozzles create a water jet that is in a triangular plane (fan pattern), others emit a thin jet of water that spirals around rapidly (cone pattern). Nozzles that deliver a higher flow rate lower the output pressure. Most nozzles attach directly to the trigger gun.
Some washers, with an appropriate nozzle, allow detergent to be introduced into the water stream, assisting in the cleaning process. Two types of chemical injectors are available — a high-pressure injector that introduces the chemical after the water leaves the pump (a downstream injector) and a low-pressure injector that introduces the chemical before water enters the pump (an upstream injector). The type of injector used is related to the type of detergent used, as there are many chemicals that will damage a pump if an upstream injector is used.
Washers are dangerous tools and should be operated with due regard to safety instructions. The water pressure near the nozzle is powerful enough to strip flesh from bone. Particles in the water supply are ejected from the nozzle at great velocities. The cleaning process can propel objects dislodged from the surface being cleaned, also at great velocities. Pressure washers have a tendency to break up tarmac if aimed directly at it, due to high-pressure water entering cracks and voids in the surface.
Most consumer washers are electric- or petrol-powered. The electric ones plug into a normal outlet, use cold tap water and typically deliver pressure up to about 2,000 psi (140 bar). Petrol washers can deliver twice that pressure, but due to the hazardous nature of the engine exhaust they are unsuitable for enclosed or indoor areas. Some models can generate hot water, which can be ideal for loosening and removing oil and grease.

Origin

The hot-water high-pressure washer was invented by Alfred Kärcher in 1950, but Frank Ofeldt in the United States claimed to have invented the steam pressure washer or "high-pressure Jenny" in 1927.

Uses

At extreme high pressure, water is used in many industrial cleaning applications requiring the removal of surface layers and for dust-free cutting of some metals and concrete. For exterior applications, gas or propane powered washers provide greater mobility than electric ones, as they do not require use in proximity to an electrical outlet, but for indoor applications, electric washers produce no exhaust and are much quieter than gas or propane washers.
The majority of pressure washers nowadays connect to an existing water supply, like a garden hose, but some models store water in an attached tank. Usually there is an on/off button that controls the water stream and many models allow you to adjust the water pressure.
High-pressure water, in combination with special chemicals, aids in the removal of graffiti, especially when the water is hot, as a quick rinser of the softened graffiti. Sometimes a pressurized mixture of air/sand or water/sand is used to blast off the surface of the vandalized area, etching the surface and making it extremely difficult to use high-pressure cleaning as a follow-up process. Sandblasting as graffiti removal often over cleans a surface and is capable of leaving a permanent scar on the surface.

Precautions

Washers can damage surfaces: water can be forced deep into bare wood and masonry, leading to an extended drying period. Such surfaces can appear dry after a short period, but still contain significant amounts of moisture that can hinder painting or sealing efforts.

Types

Washers are classified into following groups based on the type of fuel/energy they consume.

• Electric
• Diesel
• Petrol
• Gas
• Ultra high pressure
• Hydraulic high pressure
• High-pressure steam cleaner

Specialty washers

An insulator pressure washer is a mechanical high-pressure washer designed to remove contamination/pollution from overhead power line insulators with the power on (energized) using low conductivity water. Cleaning is necessary to prevent flashovers (high-voltage shorts to earth across the insulators), which can damage power line equipment.
The basic design consists of the following components:

• Power Source (a diesel engine or a power take-off from a truck chassis)
• centrifugal water pump
• stainless steel water storage tank
• high-pressure water hose
• high-pressure dead-man type water wash gun
• Electrical grounds for the wash gun and washing system

Insulator washers typically have a pump pressure of about 1000 psi and a nozzle pressure between 500 and 750 psi. They have a very high flow rate (about 60 gallons per minute), necessary to provide consistent and fast cleaning.
Insulator washers have several basic design layouts  as follows:

• Trailer mount for use in electricity substations 
• Chassis mount for mounting on a truck bed 
• Aerial platform mount for mounting on trucks that have aerial platforms
• Helicopter mounted units 

The washer must be able to access the towers to be washed. If the towers are off road in rough terrain, a 4x4, 6x4 or 6x6 truck chassis may be required.
The systems must have a robust design as they are used outdoors, often in adverse climates.

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